Summary

Reconstruction, an attempt to rebuild the South, began with the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and was introduced into legislation with the 13th Amendment (1865).  Though unsuccessful, Reconstruction gave rise to new African-American literary forms. In DuBois’s essay “The Souls of Black Folk,” (1903) he expresses disappointment in the status of supposedly “free” men.  Although freedom was the Emancipation Proclamation's goal, its propositions were soon hindered by Black Codes that defined Blacks as second-class citizens. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 attempted to counteract the Black Codes, but Blacks were again thwarted from voting and true freedom by Jim Crow Laws.

Education (e.g. "the ideal of book learning") became the final frontier for improving African-Americans' condition.  Booker T. Washington and DuBois agreed on education's value, but differed on its implementation. Washington had long-term intentions; he wanted African-Americans to gain equality by attaining better jobs and furthering trade skills. He founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama for those purposes. DuBois felt that Washington’s method insinuated acceptance of inferiority in exchange for tolerance. He preferred the "Talented Tenth," educating a smaller portion of Blacks in liberal arts to build-up the rest.  The integration of poetry and spirituals in introductions of "The Souls of Black Folk" exemplifies what this Talented Tenth should know, also serving as an attention-grabber for both races.

Dunbar, our second author, also represents DuBois’ idea of double-consciousness. In Dunbar’s “We Wear the Mask" (1897), the speaker wears a mask that hides his anger. Interestingly, this poem was published the same year "double-consciousness" was introduced.

Another of Dunbar’s works, “When Malindy Sings,” represents the earlier-studied genre of Regionalism in the dialect used throughout the poem.  The speaker insults Miss Lucy; however, the dialect's folksy tone forgives him.  It is extremely intentional in form and theme, particularly in its trochaic meter.   

Word Count: 299

Passages

“After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world,—a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity."

A passage from "Strivings of the Negro People" by W.E.B. DuBois, expressing his thoughts on Double Consciousness.  Double-consciousness is the idea that one must understand "when to be white and when to be black," that you must look at yourself through the ideas of others.

 “A million black men started with renewed zeal to vote themselves into the kingdom. So the decade flew away, the revolution of 1876 came, and left the half-free serf weary, wondering, but still inspired.”

An excerpt from W.E.B. DuBois' document, "Of Our Spiritual Strivings", addressing the end of the era of Reconstruction.  As noted in the summary, the "pancea" for slavery kept changing; however, African-Americans never lost hope.  

“In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.”

An excerpt from Booker T. Washington's address at the opening ceremonies of the Atlanta Cotton States and International Exposition, September 18, 1895. This address, known as the Atlanta Compromise, was meant to encourage the idea of "Seperate but Equal," an alternative to Equal Rights in order to allow black people the opportunities for better jobs.

"We smile, but, O great Christ, our cries / To thee from tortured souls arise" (10-11).

An excerpt from "We Wear the Mask."  In these two lines, the reader senses not only the importance of religion in the African-American struggle for freedom ("Christ"), but the sheer exasperation of it all.  The enjambment emphasizes the pain of their "cries."  

Key Terms

Panacea - A cure-all; remedy for all disease.

Minstrel Show - Popular form of comedic show during the 19th and 20th century, usually featuring white actors in blackface.

Double Consciousness - An awareness of one's self and one's culture, in addition to an awareness of how another culture percieves you.

Jim Crow Laws - Laws passed by Southern states legalizing segregation between white people and black people.

Franchisement - The guarantee and recognition of the right of a citizen to vote.

Civil Rights Act of 1866 - Gives people full equality under the law, except the right to vote.